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4 Tahap Mendidik Anak Cara Rasulullah S.A.W

4 Tahap Mendidik Anak Cara Rasulullah S.A.W


Mendidik anak memerlukan ilmu pengetahuan yang cukup dan seorang ‘role-model’ untuk diteladani. Bagi umat Islam, contoh teladan yang terbaik adalah rasul junjungan yang mulia, Nabi Muhammad S.A.W. Baginda umpama ensiklopedia sebagai penyuluh buat segenap manusia.

Semua anak yang dilahirkan adalah pembawa rahmat dan rezeki buat semua keluarga. Mereka dilahirkan penuh dengan kelebihan dan keistimewaan. Tiada istilah mereka dilahirkan membawa ‘nasib malang’ atau tidak elok buat kita.

Dilema ibubapa hari ini apabila setiap usaha yang mereka lakukan untuk mendidik anak-anak umpama mencurah air didaun keladi. Tiada apa perubahan positif yang terjadi pada tingkahlaku mereka. Jika tugas sebagai seorang guru di sekolah boleh mendidik beratus-ratus anak murid, tetapi ianya bukan jaminan kita mampu mendidik pada anak sendiri. Tertanya-tanya dimanakah silapnya.

Baik guru, pensyarah mahupun pakar motivasi semuanya adalah manusia biasa. Tiada satu formula yang ideal dalam usaha membentuk anak-anak untuk menjadi orang yang cemerlang. Apa yang terbaik adalah berbalik kepada fitrah dan sunnah yang telah sekian lama diamalkan oleh Rasulullah S.A.W.




4 tahap bagaimana mendidik anak mengikut sunnah Rasulullah s.a.w adalah :

1) Umur anak-anak 0-6 tahun. Pada masa ini, Rasulullah s.a.w menyuruh kita untuk memanjakan, mengasihi dan menyayangi anak dengan kasih sayang yg tidak berbatas. Berikan mereka kasih sayang tanpa mengira anak sulung mahupun bongsu dengan bersikap adil terhadap setiap anak-anak. Tidak boleh dirotan sekiranya mereka melakukan kesalahan walaupun atas dasar untuk mendidik.
Kesannya, anak-anak akan lebih dekat dengan kita dan merasakan kita sebahagian masa membesar mereka yang boleh dianggap sebagai rakan dan rujukan yang terbaik. Anak-anak merasa aman dalam meniti usia kecil mereka kerana mereka tahu yang anda (ibubapa) selalu ada disisi mereka setiap masa.

2) Umur anak-anak 7-14 tahun. Pada tahap ini kita mula menanamkan nilai DISIPLIN dan TANGUNGJAWAB kepada anak-anak. Menurut hadith Abu Daud, “Perintahlah anak-anak kamu supaya mendirikan sembahyang ketika berusia tujuh tahun dan pukullah mereka kerana meninggalkan sembahyang ketika berumur sepuluh tahun dan asingkanlah tempat tidur di antara mereka (lelaki dan perempuan). Pukul itu pula bukanlah untuk menyeksa, cuma sekadar untuk menggerunkan mereka. Janganlah dipukul bahagian muka kerana muka adalah tempat penghormatan seseorang. Allah SWT mencipta sendiri muka Nabi Adam.

Kesannya, anak-anak akan lebih bertanggungjawab pada setiap suruhan terutama dalam mendirikan solat. Inilah masa terbaik bagi kita dalam memprogramkan sahsiah dan akhlak anak-anak mengikut acuan Islam. Terpulang pada ibubapa samada ingin menjadikan mereka seorang muslim, yahudi, nasrani ataupun majusi.

3) Umur anak-anak 15- 21 tahun. Inilah fasa remaja yang penuh sikap memberontak. Pada tahap ini, ibubapa seeloknya mendekati anak-anak dengan BERKAWAN dengan mereka. Banyakkan berborak dan berbincang dengan mereka tentang perkara yang mereka hadapi. Bagi anak remaja perempuan, berkongsilah dengan mereka tentang kisah kedatangan ‘haid’ mereka dan perasaan mereka ketika itu. Jadilah pendengar yang setia kepada mereka. Sekiranya tidak bersetuju dengan sebarang tindakan mereka, elakkan mengherdik atau memarahi mereka terutama dihadapan adik-beradik yang lain tetapi banyakkan pendekatan secara diplomasi walaupun kita adalah orang tua mereka.Kesannya, tiada orang ketiga atau ‘asing’ akan hadir dalam hidup mereka sebagai tempat rujukan dan pendengar masalah mereka. Mereka tidak akan terpengaruh untuk keluar rumah untuk mencari keseronokkan memandangkan semua kebahagian dan keseronokkan telah ada di rumah bersama keluarga.

4) Umur anak 21 tahun dan ke atas. Fasa ini adalah masa ibubapa untuk memberikan sepenuh KEPERCAYAAN kepada anak-anak dengan memberi KEBEBASAN dalam membuat keputusan mereka sendiri. Ibubapa hanya perlu pantau, nasihatkan dengan diiringi doa agar setiap hala tuju yang diambil mereka adalah betul. Bermula pengembaraan kehidupan mereka yang sebenar di luar rumah. Insha’Allah dengan segala displin yang diasah sejak tahap ke-2 sebelum ini cukup menjadi benteng diri buat mereka. Ibubapa jangan penat untuk menasihati mereka, kerana mengikut kajian nasihat yang diucap sebanyak 200 kali terhadap anak-anak mampu membentuk tingkahlaku yang baik seperti yang ibubapa inginkan.

Curahkan Kasih Sayang dengan Bermain Bersama-sama Mereka

Tiada manusia dilahirkan tanpa titik permulaan. Sesungguhnya fasa yang terpenting dalam tumbesaran setiap anak-anak adalah pada fasa yang pertama mengikut didikan Rasulullah S.A.W seperti di atas. Tahap ini dianggap paling penting kerana ketika inilah asas @ foundation dalam kerohanian anak-anak yang sihat terbentuk.

Mengikut ujian tingkah laku, anak-anak yang diberi perhatian dan kasih sayang yang cukup akan membesar dengan penuh yakin dan lebih mudah mendengar kata. Sebaliknya bagi anak-anak yang kurang diberi perhatian, mereka mudah memberontak dengan melakukan perkara yang ditegah walaupun berulang kali ditegur. Mereka percaya itulah cara terbaik bagaimana untuk menarik perhatian anda semula.

Masa Kecil Mereka Takkan Berulang Buat Kali Kedua…

Dipetik kata-kata Prof Dr Muhaya dalam siaran langsung di radio IKIM.fm dalam segmen ‘Reset Minda Orang Yang Tenang’ baru-baru ini,
“Carilah aktiviti atau program yang memberi manfaat masa berkualiti bersama anak-anak. Program yang menekan seperti ikatan kekeluargaan ataupun ‘family bonding time’ adalah program terbaik dalam ‘membayar’ semula masa dan tenaga yang kita gunakan untuk mencari rezeki kepada anak-anak”.

Petua menangani kanak-kanak hiperaktif (ADHD)

Petua menangani kanak-kanak hiperaktif (ADHD)

Posted on March 4, 2011 by sitik

Anak adalah anugerah dan amanah Allah SWT kepada ibu bapa. Namun, tidak semua anak yang dilahirkan normal dan tidak memberi masalah kepada ibu bapa mereka. Ini semua adalah qadha dan qadar yang telah ditentukan, yang mana secara langsung dan tidak langsung menjadi suatu ujian kepada kedua ibu bapa. Kata orang, tidak ada penyakit yang tidak ada ubatnya kecuali tua dan mati, cuma ibu bapa perlulah mengetahui apakah masalah dan penyakit yang dihidapi oleh anak-anak mereka supaya mudah dicari ubatnya.





Disebabkan keadaan persekitaran dan juga pemakanan sekarang ini, banyak kanak-kanak yang menjadi hiperaktif dan agresif. Perilaku hiperaktif ini bukannya perilaku normal kanak-kanak tetapi ia merupakan suatu penyakit yang perlu ditangani dan diubati. Perilaku hiperaktif ini dikenali sebagai Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) di mana kanak-kanak ini tersangat aktif dan lasak, ia boleh memahami dan berfikir tetapi sukar memberi tumpuan atau perhatian. Ini menyebabkan kanak-kanak hiperaktif ini sukar bergaul dalam masyarakat dan lemah dari segi akademiknya.




Perilaku hiperaktif dan agresif ini terjadi disebabkan oleh perubahan kimia (neurotransmitter) pada otak dan selalunya otaknya bersaiz lebih kecil (5-10%) daripada normal. Di antara punca penyebab anak hiperaktif ialah ibu yang merokok semasa hamil, faktor genetik, kelahiran pramatang (premature), mengalami kecederaan otak semasa dalam kandungan, dsb.




Di antara perilaku hiperaktif yang mudah dikenalpasti ialah kanak-kanak bersikap degil, lasak dan tidak tahu duduk diam, suka membantah, suka melanggar peraturan, leka dan sukar memberi tumpuan (terutama dalam pelajaran), sering tidak berpuas hati, mudah rasa tertekan, bermasalah dalam pelajaran dan hubungan sosial dengan kawan-kawan, sering berpeluh dan mengalami sakit perut atau cirit birit.


Masalah perilaku hiperaktif di peringkat kanak-kanak ini jika tidak diubati atau ditangani dengan sewajarnya, mungkin penyakit ini akan berterusan hingga dewasa. Kanak-kanak hiperaktif ini selalunya melakukan sesuatu tanpa memikirkan orang lain di sekelilingnya, cuma ikut hatinya sahaja dan suka bermain bersendirian.


Perilaku hiperaktif ini boleh dirawati atau ditangani dengan pengurusan emosi yang berkesan, seperti tidak meninggalkannya bersendirian bergaul dengan kanak-kanak yang lebih muda kerana ditakuti dia akan menyakiti atau mencederakan mereka, jauhkan benda-benda yang tajam dan merbahaya supaya dia tidak mencederakan dirinya sendiri, perlu ditegur dan dididik serta didisplinkannya, jangan bercakap dan berlaku kasar di hadapannya kerana selalunya dia akan mengikut apa yang ibu bapa lakukan, perlukan perhatian dan tunjukkan kasih sayang yang lebih, dan jangan merendah-rendahkan dirinya di depan orang sehingga dia terasa tidak disayangi kerana ini kan memburukkan lagi keadaannya.




Petua menjaga dan merawat kanak-kanak hiperaktif diperincikan dalam artikel di bawah ini untuk dijadikan perhatian panduan kepada ibu bapa yang mempunyai anak hiperaktif…..


Tips for Parenting a Child With ADHD


Reviewed by Melissa Conrad Stoppler, MD


What Is ADHD?





ADHD, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, is a behavioral condition characterized by inattention, impulsiveness, and/or hyperactivity. It has been estimated that approximately 5% of U.S. children have ADHD, according to established diagnostic criteria.


What Are the Symptoms of ADHD?



The three key symptoms of ADHD are hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention. These symptoms typically interfere with the child’s functioning in social and academic settings, such as paying attention to tasks at home or school, making careless errors, being easily distracted, not following through with tasks or completing instructions, being easily bored, losing things, being forgetful, having difficulty organizing tasks, being fidgety, having difficulty remaining seated, and talking excessively, to name a few.


Many children with ADHD will have symptoms that persist into adulthood. Effective treatments for ADHD include both medications and behavioral therapies. Not surprisingly, parenting a child with ADHD can pose special challenges.


How Do I Know if My Child Has ADHD?



Many of the symptoms of ADHD are also symptoms seen during normal childhood and development, and exhibiting one or more of the symptoms does not mean that a child has ADHD. It is also important to note that for a health-care professional to make a diagnosis of ADHD, the symptoms must have been present for at least six months in more than one setting (for example, home, school, and in the community), usually beginning before 7 years of age, and the symptoms must be inconsistent with the developmental level of the child and severe enough to interfere with the child’s social or academic functioning.


What Should I Do if I Am Concerned That My Child Might Have ADHD?





If you are concerned about your child’s behavior, it is appropriate to communicate this to your child’s primary health-care provider. He or she can help you determine whether further evaluation may be necessary and whether your child’s behavioral symptoms are suggestive of ADHD. If a formal evaluation is indicated, this evaluation will involve professionals from various disciplines to provide a comprehensive medical, developmental, educational, and psychosocial evaluation.


Think Positively





While ADHD can certainly present unique and sometimes what can seem to be daunting challenges, being able to sincerely know and have confidence in your child’s strengths can go a long way toward helping him or her be the very best person he or she can be. Many famous, accomplished, and indeed brilliant people of the past and present have ADHD. An outstanding example of learning to have a positive outlook about ADHD is demonstrated in the children’s book and movie called, Percy Jackson and the Olympians: The Lightning Thief.


Another benefit to thinking positively about your child with ADHD is its infectious nature. It is much easier for the child’s teacher, coaches, peers, and in fact, the child him- or herself to accept and harness strengths when the parent communicates and emphasizes those strengths. The challenge for parenting a child with ADHD is to be able to use the child’s unique gifts and address his or her challenges to work toward achieving the child’s fullest potential.


Define Schedules and Routines





Clearly defined schedules and routines are essential for children (as well as for teens and adults) with ADHD. Having an established, while not inflexible, pattern for getting ready in the mornings, preparing for bedtime, and managing after-school homework and activities provides a sense of consistency and allows the child to know what to expect. It can be helpful for older children to have plenty of conspicuous clocks to use as cues for time management. Some parents find that the use of timers (for homework time, time to finish up play, etc.) helps for younger children.


To make the process more enjoyable or easier to remember, charts and checklists can be used that list the steps or tasks required for each time of day. For example, the “morning checklist” can include items like making the bed, brushing their teeth, and helping to prepare school lunch. Hang the checklists in a conspicuous place and allow your child to check off completed items as they are done, if he/she wishes.


Set Clear Rules and Expectations



As with clearly defined schedules, attainable, clearly defined rules and expectations are also essential for kids with ADHD. In both school and at home, children with ADHD need a consistent and clearly defined set of rules. It can be helpful to create a list of rules for the home and post them in a place where the child can easily see them. It’s very important to stick to the rules and provide fair and consistent rewards and consequences when the household rules are not followed.


Give Clear Instructions





Avoid vague or open-ended instructions such as “clean up your mess” or “play nicely” that do not accurately convey the specific tasks that you want to be done. Instead, use clear language and specific instructions such as “please put all the dirty clothes in the hamper,” “please put all the toys back on the shelves,” or “let’s allow your friend to have a turn playing with the toy.” Speak in a calm and clear voice, and be sure to establish kind eye contact with your child when you give instructions so it is more likely he or she is focused on what you are saying. It can be helpful to have your child repeat the instructions back to you. Breaking down instructions for larger tasks into simple steps can also be helpful.


Discipline, Rewards, and Consequences





Children with ADHD respond very well to a defined and predictable system of rewards and consequences to manage behavior and discipline. Reward positive behaviors with praise or with small rewards that cost little or no money, such as special time with a parent or participating in an outing or favorite activity. Focus on praise or privileges as rewards rather than offering foods or toys as prizes.


It’s always best to give more rewards and positive praise than negative comments or consequences. For example, smile and say, “I like the way you’re working on your homework” or “you’re doing a great job clearing the table.” Ask your child to say what he or she did well during an activity and help him or her to come up with something if he or she cannot.





Likewise, consequences for negative behaviors should be fair, appropriate, consistent, predictable, and swiftly implemented and completed. Major events like holidays or the child’s birthday should never be completely withdrawn or uncelebrated because of something the child did. Consequences ideally should be explained in advance and should occur immediately following the negative behavior. Delayed consequences (such as not participating in an event or outing in the following week) are not as effective as immediate consequences. Consequences can include time-outs, removal from the situation or setting, or restriction of privileges. It is very important that the consequence occur after every instance of negative behavior.


Use Time-Out Effectively





Particularly for younger children, time-outs can be an effective consequence for negative behaviors that serve the additional purpose of removing the child from an overstimulating or stressful environment. A time-out is also an immediate consequence that is likely to be more effective than a delayed consequence. Many experts recommend that time-outs not last longer in minutes than the child’s age in years (for example, a five-minute time out for a 5-year-old). Longer than that may be too difficult for the child to complete, leading him or her to be more likely to defy doing the time-out at all.


Ignore Within Reason



In some situations, ignoring an undesired behavior may be an effective behavior-modification technique for children with ADHD. Obviously, behavior that is risky or injurious to the child or to others cannot be ignored, but behaviors such as whining, nagging, and arguing sometimes can be ignored until the behaviors stop. Many children with ADHD crave attention from others, even if it is negative attention in the form of yelling, shouting, or scolding. Refusing to provide any attention to the child who is behaving inappropriately can be effective if done consistently. For the child who gets increasingly loud or disruptive (escalates) when ignored, another way to respond may involve calmly and quietly telling the child that when they are calm and quiet the conversation can resume.


Develop Organizational Aids





Children with ADHD have poor executive functioning skills, which means, among other difficulties, that they have trouble organizing their belongings and tasks. Some parents (in cooperation with teachers) have found it helpful to provide color-coded binders and notebooks for each school subject, as well as a homework sheet in the front of the binder that lists homework for each school day. Others may find that purchasing a second set of textbooks for the home is useful for the child who frequently forgets to bring the proper materials home. Help your child develop an organizational system for his/her room and belongings and stick to it.


Eliminate Distractions





While this sounds obvious, many home environments are simply chaotic and full of distractions for the child with ADHD. Be sure that your child has plenty of quiet time and space to complete homework and other tasks. A homework space that is free of external distractions like television and video games, and is not located in rooms in the home where most people congregate is key to successful completion of assignments.


Set Small, Attainable Goals



Think of changing your child’s less positive behaviors like training for a marathon. Just like no one would expect you or anyone else to go from never running at all to completing 26-plus miles, it is unfair and unrealistic to expect your child to change 15, or 10, or even five behaviors immediately. Don’t expect dramatic changes overnight. If your goal is to have your child sit still politely through a restaurant meal or family outing, break the process down into small and attainable goals like not interrupting a conversation for five minutes, remaining seated for 10 minutes, etc. Be sure to offer plenty of praise and rewards when these small goals are met.


Focus on One or Two Challenging Behaviors at a Time



Changing all of a child’s negative behaviors at once is never possible, and attempting to do so can create unbearable stress for both parent and child, setting up both for failure. Instead, pick one or two challenging behaviors that you’d like to improve and focus on those. Examples might be interrupting, not remaining seated, forgetting to put toys away, or arguing about bedtime. Whichever behaviors you choose to modify, understand the behavior changes must be gradual to be successful over time.


Find Areas in Which the Child Excels or Succeeds





No one enjoys being subjected to constant criticism or complaints about their behavior. As every individual needs to feel good at something, constant criticizing can result in the child unwittingly working more at perfecting negative behaviors they get attention for rather than the positive behaviors if he or she is not praised. Help your child find an area or interest in which he or she is successful. This can be a sport, musical instrument, academic subject, art form, or other hobby. Being successful or having a strong interest in a hobby can greatly improve your child’s self-esteem and well-being. There is no single “best” activity for children with ADHD. Let their interests and enthusiasm be your guide.


Promote a Healthy Lifestyle – Nutrition



A healthy lifestyle will help not only your child but the entire family to preserve both physical and emotional health. Stick to a nutrition plan and avoid giving your child junk foods and “empty” calories on more than an occasional basis. While sugary foods are not a cause of ADHD, some parents find that lots of sugary foods may worsen their child’s symptoms. Sometimes older children with ADHD are so distracted and disorganized that they may skip meals or eat irregularly. Decreased appetite can be a side effect of some medications that treat ADHD. Try to ensure that your child is eating regularly, and small meals every few hours may be most effective for some children with ADHD. While allowing your child to enjoy childhood by allowing for an occasional treat, it is important to teach your child to make good food choices by modeling these choices yourself.


Promote a Healthy Lifestyle – Exercise





Exercise can help excitable children “burn off” excess energy, and regular exercise promotes physical well-being and healthy sleep habits. Encouraging your child to participate in organized sports after school can provide both regular exercise and the benefits of a regular and predictable schedule. Many children with ADHD do well in martial arts or yoga classes that emphasize mental as well as physical control over their bodies. In general, it’s important to pick a sport that suits your child and his or her abilities, but sports that involve constant activity or motion may be better choices for some kids than sports that have significant “down-time” like baseball or softball.


Promote a Healthy Lifestyle – Sleep





Sleep is the final factor in ensuring a healthy lifestyle for your child and family on a daily basis. If your child is not well-rested, he/she will have even more difficulty staying focused and on-task. Falling asleep can be difficult for children with ADHD who may be overstimulated and have an increased activity level. As part of your regular and predictable schedule, it’s important to have a set bedtime and bedtime routine. You can use a checklist or timer if you like to help your child make the transition to bedtime. Eliminating caffeine in your child’s diet as well as providing a calming nighttime ritual (such as cuddling or sharing a book or story) can help your child wind down at the end of an active day. For older children and teens, turning off the computer and storing cell phones and other electronic devices outside the child’s room for the night serve to prevent their interfering with sleep.


Show Your Unconditional Love



Be sure your child is aware of your unconditional love and support, no matter how he or she behaves. Withdrawal of love or affection is never an appropriate consequence for undesired behavior. It’s OK to let your child know that you are angry or frustrated with his/her behavior at times, but remember to say “I love you” every day and be sure your child knows that he or she is an accepted and valued member of the family.


Take Care of Yourself



Finally, don’t forget to take care of the caregiver. In addition to the joy of accomplishment, parenting a child with ADHD can bring on a variety of upsetting emotions, including embarrassment, anger, anxiety, worry, and frustration. In fact, you may feel any or all of these on a given day. Try to keep a sense of perspective and understand that your child’s behaviors are due to a disorder and may not always be under his or her full control.


If you need a break, you shouldn’t feel guilty. Parenting is a stressful job, and it’s OK to accept help from family and friends in caring for your child. Take time off from parenting to spend time on activities you enjoy or even spend time alone in order to recharge yourself. You won’t be an effective parent or role model if you have no energy to devote to the process.

What is Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD, ADD)?

What is Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD, ADD)?

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common childhood disorders and can continue through adolescence and adulthood. Symptoms include difficulty staying focused and paying attention, difficulty controlling behavior, and hyperactivity (over-activity).

ADHD has three subtypes:

· Predominantly hyperactive-impulsive

o Most symptoms (six or more) are in the hyperactivity-impulsivity categories.

o Fewer than six symptoms of inattention are present, although inattention may still be present to some degree.

· Predominantly inattentive

o The majority of symptoms (six or more) are in the inattention category and fewer than six symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity are present, although hyperactivity-impulsivity may still be present to some degree.

o Children with this subtype are less likely to act out or have difficulties getting along with other children. They may sit quietly, but they are not paying attention to what they are doing. Therefore, the child may be overlooked, and parents and teachers may not notice that he or she has ADHD.

· Combined hyperactive-impulsive and inattentive

o Six or more symptoms of inattention and six or more symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity are present.

o Most children have the combined type of ADHD.

Causes

Scientists are not sure what causes ADHD, although many studies suggest that genes play a large role. Like many other illnesses, ADHD probably results from a combination of factors. In addition to genetics, researchers are looking at possible environmental factors, and are studying how brain injuries, nutrition, and the social environment might contribute to ADHD.

Genes. Results from several international studies of twins show that ADHD often runs in families. Researchers are looking at several genes that may make people more likely to develop the disorder. Knowing the genes involved may one day help researchers prevent the disorder before symptoms develop. Learning about specific genes could also lead to better treatments.

Children with ADHD who carry a particular version of a certain gene have thinner brain tissue in the areas of the brain associated with attention. This NIMH research showed that the difference was not permanent, however, and as children with this gene grew up, the brain developed to a normal level of thickness. Their ADHD symptoms also improved.

Environmental factors. Studies suggest a potential link between cigarette smoking and alcohol use during pregnancy and ADHD in children. In addition, preschoolers who are exposed to high levels of lead, which can sometimes be found in plumbing fixtures or paint in old buildings, may have a higher risk of developing ADHD.

Brain injuries. Children who have suffered a brain injury may show some behaviors similar to those of ADHD. However, only a small percentage of children with ADHD have suffered a traumatic brain injury.

Sugar. The idea that refined sugar causes ADHD or makes symptoms worse is popular, but more research discounts this theory than supports it. In one study, researchers gave children foods containing either sugar or a sugar substitute every other day. The children who received sugar showed no different behavior or learning capabilities than those who received the sugar substitute. Another study in which children were given higher than average amounts of sugar or sugar substitutes showed similar results.

In another study, children who were considered sugar-sensitive by their mothers were given the sugar substitute aspartame, also known as Nutrasweet. Although all the children got aspartame, half their mothers were told their children were given sugar, and the other half were told their children were given aspartame. The mothers who thought their children had gotten sugar rated them as more hyperactive than the other children and were more critical of their behavior, compared to mothers who thought their children received aspartame.

Food additives. Recent British research indicates a possible link between consumption of certain food additives like artificial colors or preservatives, and an increase in activity. Research is under way to confirm the findings and to learn more about how food additives may affect hyperactivity.

Signs & Symptoms

Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity are the key behaviors of ADHD. It is normal for all children to be inattentive, hyperactive, or impulsive sometimes, but for children with ADHD, these behaviors are more severe and occur more often. To be diagnosed with the disorder, a child must have symptoms for 6 or more months and to a degree that is greater than other children of the same age.

Children who have symptoms of inattention may:

· Be easily distracted, miss details, forget things, and frequently switch from one activity to another

· Have difficulty focusing on one thing

· Become bored with a task after only a few minutes, unless they are doing something enjoyable

· Have difficulty focusing attention on organizing and completing a task or learning something new

· Have trouble completing or turning in homework assignments, often losing things (e.g., pencils, toys, assignments) needed to complete tasks or activities

· Not seem to listen when spoken to

· Daydream, become easily confused, and move slowly

· Have difficulty processing information as quickly and accurately as others

· Struggle to follow instructions.

Children who have symptoms of hyperactivity may:

· Fidget and squirm in their seats

· Talk nonstop

· Dash around, touching or playing with anything and everything in sight

· Have trouble sitting still during dinner, school, and story time

· Be constantly in motion

· Have difficulty doing quiet tasks or activities.

Children who have symptoms of impulsivity may:

· Be very impatient

· Blurt out inappropriate comments, show their emotions without restraint, and act without regard for consequences

· Have difficulty waiting for things they want or waiting their turns in games

· Often interrupt conversations or others' activities.

ADHD Can Be Mistaken for Other Problems

Parents and teachers can miss the fact that children with symptoms of inattention have the disorder because they are often quiet and less likely to act out. They may sit quietly, seeming to work, but they are often not paying attention to what they are doing. They may get along well with other children, compared with those with the other subtypes, who tend to have social problems. But children with the inattentive kind of ADHD are not the only ones whose disorders can be missed. For example, adults may think that children with the hyperactive and impulsive subtypes just have emotional or disciplinary problems.

Who Is At Risk?

ADHD is one of the most common childhood disorders and can continue through adolescence and into adulthood. The average age of onset is 7 years old.

ADHD affects about 4.1% American adults age 18 years and older in a given year. The disorder affects 9.0% of American children age 13 to 18 years. Boys are four times at risk than girls.

Studies show that the number of children being diagnosed with ADHD is increasing, but it is unclear why.

Diagnosis

Children mature at different rates and have different personalities, temperaments, and energy levels. Most children get distracted, act impulsively, and struggle to concentrate at one time or another. Sometimes, these normal factors may be mistaken for ADHD. ADHD symptoms usually appear early in life, often between the ages of 3 and 6, and because symptoms vary from person to person, the disorder can be hard to diagnose. Parents may first notice that their child loses interest in things sooner than other children, or seems constantly "out of control." Often, teachers notice the symptoms first, when a child has trouble following rules, or frequently "spaces out" in the classroom or on the playground.

No single test can diagnose a child as having ADHD. Instead, a licensed health professional needs to gather information about the child, and his or her behavior and environment. A family may want to first talk with the child's pediatrician. Some pediatricians can assess the child themselves, but many will refer the family to a mental health specialist with experience in childhood mental disorders such as ADHD. The pediatrician or mental health specialist will first try to rule out other possibilities for the symptoms. For example, certain situations, events, or health conditions may cause temporary behaviors in a child that seem like ADHD.

Between them, the referring pediatrician and specialist will determine if a child:

· Is experiencing undetected seizures that could be associated with other medical conditions

· Has a middle ear infection that is causing hearing problems

· Has any undetected hearing or vision problems

· Has any medical problems that affect thinking and behavior

· Has any learning disabilities

· Has anxiety or depression, or other psychiatric problems that might cause ADHD-like symptoms

· Has been affected by a significant and sudden change, such as the death of a family member, a divorce, or parent's job loss.

A specialist will also check school and medical records for clues, to see if the child's home or school settings appear unusually stressful or disrupted, and gather information from the child's parents and teachers. Coaches, babysitters, and other adults who know the child well also may be consulted.

The specialist also will ask:

· Are the behaviors excessive and long-term, and do they affect all aspects of the child's life?

· Do they happen more often in this child compared with the child's peers?

· Are the behaviors a continuous problem or a response to a temporary situation?

· Do the behaviors occur in several settings or only in one place, such as the playground, classroom, or home?

The specialist pays close attention to the child's behavior during different situations. Some situations are highly structured, some have less structure. Others would require the child to keep paying attention. Most children with ADHD are better able to control their behaviors in situations where they are getting individual attention and when they are free to focus on enjoyable activities. These types of situations are less important in the assessment. A child also may be evaluated to see how he or she acts in social situations, and may be given tests of intellectual ability and academic achievement to see if he or she has a learning disability.

Finally, if after gathering all this information the child meets the criteria for ADHD, he or she will be diagnosed with the disorder.

Some children with ADHD also have other illnesses or conditions. For example, they may have one or more of the following:

· A learning disability. A child in preschool with a learning disability may have difficulty understanding certain sounds or words or have problems expressing himself or herself in words. A school-aged child may struggle with reading, spelling, writing, and math.

· Oppositional defiant disorder. Kids with this condition, in which a child is overly stubborn or rebellious, often argue with adults and refuse to obey rules.

· Conduct disorder. This condition includes behaviors in which the child may lie, steal, fight, or bully others. He or she may destroy property, break into homes, or carry or use weapons. These children or teens are also at a higher risk of using illegal substances. Kids with conduct disorder are at risk of getting into trouble at school or with the police.

· Anxiety and depression. Treating ADHD may help to decrease anxiety or some forms of depression.

· Bipolar disorder. Some children with ADHD may also have this condition in which extreme mood swings go from mania (an extremely high elevated mood) to depression in short periods of time.

· Tourette syndrome. Very few children have this brain disorder, but among those who do, many also have ADHD. Some people with Tourette syndrome have nervous tics and repetitive mannerisms, such as eye blinks, facial twitches, or grimacing. Others clear their throats, snort, or sniff frequently, or bark out words inappropriately. These behaviors can be controlled with medication.

ADHD also may coexist with a sleep disorder, bed-wetting, substance abuse, or other disorders or illnesses.

Recognizing ADHD symptoms and seeking help early will lead to better outcomes for both affected children and their families.

How is ADHD diagnosed in adults?

Like children, adults who suspect they have ADHD should be evaluated by a licensed mental health professional. But the professional may need to consider a wider range of symptoms when assessing adults for ADHD because their symptoms tend to be more varied and possibly not as clear-cut as symptoms seen in children.

To be diagnosed with the condition, an adult must have ADHD symptoms that began in childhood and continued throughout adulthood. Health professionals use certain rating scales to determine if an adult meets the diagnostic criteria for ADHD. The mental health professional also will look at the person's history of childhood behavior and school experiences, and will interview spouses or partners, parents, close friends, and other associates. The person will also undergo a physical exam and various psychological tests.

For some adults, a diagnosis of ADHD can bring a sense of relief. Adults who have had the disorder since childhood, but who have not been diagnosed, may have developed negative feelings about themselves over the years. Receiving a diagnosis allows them to understand the reasons for their problems, and treatment will allow them to deal with their problems more effectively.

Treatments

Currently available treatments focus on reducing the symptoms of ADHD and improving functioning. Treatments include medication, various types of psychotherapy, education or training, or a combination of treatments.

Treatments can relieve many of the disorder's symptoms, but there is no cure. With treatment, most people with ADHD can be successful in school and lead productive lives. Researchers are developing more effective treatments and interventions, and using new tools such as brain imaging, to better understand ADHD and to find more effective ways to treat and prevent it.

Medications

The most common type of medication used for treating ADHD is called a "stimulant." Although it may seem unusual to treat ADHD with a medication considered a stimulant, it actually has a calming effect on children with ADHD. Many types of stimulant medications are available. A few other ADHD medications are non-stimulants and work differently than stimulants. For many children, ADHD medications reduce hyperactivity and impulsivity and improve their ability to focus, work, and learn. Medication also may improve physical coordination.

However, a one-size-fits-all approach does not apply for all children with ADHD. What works for one child might not work for another. One child might have side effects with a certain medication, while another child may not. Sometimes several different medications or dosages must be tried before finding one that works for a particular child. Any child taking medications must be monitored closely and carefully by caregivers and doctors.

Stimulant medications come in different forms, such as a pill, capsule, liquid, or skin patch. Some medications also come in short-acting, long-acting, or extended release varieties. In each of these varieties, the active ingredient is the same, but it is released differently in the body. Long-acting or extended release forms often allow a child to take the medication just once a day before school, so they don't have to make a daily trip to the school nurse for another dose. Parents and doctors should decide together which medication is best for the child and whether the child needs medication only for school hours or for evenings and weekends, too.

Over time, this list will grow, as researchers continue to develop new medications for ADHD. Medication guides for each of these medications are available from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

What are the side effects of stimulant medications?

The most commonly reported side effects are decreased appetite, sleep problems, anxiety, and irritability. Some children also report mild stomachaches or headaches. Most side effects are minor and disappear over time or if the dosage level is lowered.

· Decreased appetite. Be sure your child eats healthy meals. If this side effect does not go away, talk to your child's doctor. Also talk to the doctor if you have concerns about your child's growth or weight gain while he or she is taking this medication.

· Sleep problems. If a child cannot fall asleep, the doctor may prescribe a lower dose of the medication or a shorter-acting form. The doctor might also suggest giving the medication earlier in the day, or stopping the afternoon or evening dose. Adding a prescription for a low dose of an antidepressant or a blood pressure medication called clonidine sometimes helps with sleep problems. A consistent sleep routine that includes relaxing elements like warm milk, soft music, or quiet activities in dim light, may also help.

· Less common side effects. A few children develop sudden, repetitive movements or sounds called tics. These tics may or may not be noticeable. Changing the medication dosage may make tics go away. Some children also may have a personality change, such as appearing "flat" or without emotion. Talk with your child's doctor if you see any of these side effects.

Are stimulant medications safe?

Under medical supervision, stimulant medications are considered safe. Stimulants do not make children with ADHD feel high, although some kids report feeling slightly different or "funny." Although some parents worry that stimulant medications may lead to substance abuse or dependence, there is little evidence of this.

FDA warning on possible rare side effects

In 2007, the FDA required that all makers of ADHD medications develop Patient Medication Guides that contain information about the risks associated with the medications. The guides must alert patients that the medications may lead to possible cardiovascular (heart and blood) or psychiatric problems. The agency undertook this precaution when a review of data found that ADHD patients with existing heart conditions had a slightly higher risk of strokes, heart attacks, and/or sudden death when taking the medications.

The review also found a slight increased risk, about 1 in 1,000, for medication-related psychiatric problems, such as hearing voices, having hallucinations, becoming suspicious for no reason, or becoming manic (an overly high mood), even in patients without a history of psychiatric problems. The FDA recommends that any treatment plan for ADHD include an initial health history, including family history, and examination for existing cardiovascular and psychiatric problems.

One ADHD medication, the non-stimulant atomoxetine (Strattera), carries another warning. Studies show that children and teenagers who take atomoxetine are more likely to have suicidal thoughts than children and teenagers with ADHD who do not take it. If your child is taking atomoxetine, watch his or her behavior carefully. A child may develop serious symptoms suddenly, so it is important to pay attention to your child's behavior every day. Ask other people who spend a lot of time with your child to tell you if they notice changes in your child's behavior. Call a doctor right away if your child shows any unusual behavior. While taking atomoxetine, your child should see a doctor often, especially at the beginning of treatment, and be sure that your child keeps all appointments with his or her doctor.

Do medications cure ADHD?

Current medications do not cure ADHD. Rather, they control the symptoms for as long as they are taken. Medications can help a child pay attention and complete schoolwork. It is not clear, however, whether medications can help children learn or improve their academic skills. Adding behavioral therapy, counseling, and practical support can help children with ADHD and their families to better cope with everyday problems. Research funded by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) has shown that medication works best when treatment is regularly monitored by the prescribing doctor and the dose is adjusted based on the child's needs.

Psychotherapy

Different types of psychotherapy are used for ADHD. Behavioral therapy aims to help a child change his or her behavior. It might involve practical assistance, such as help organizing tasks or completing schoolwork, or working through emotionally difficult events. Behavioral therapy also teaches a child how to monitor his or her own behavior. Learning to give oneself praise or rewards for acting in a desired way, such as controlling anger or thinking before acting, is another goal of behavioral therapy. Parents and teachers also can give positive or negative feedback for certain behaviors. In addition, clear rules, chore lists, and other structured routines can help a child control his or her behavior.

Therapists may teach children social skills, such as how to wait their turn, share toys, ask for help, or respond to teasing. Learning to read facial expressions and the tone of voice in others, and how to respond appropriately can also be part of social skills training.

How can parents help?

Children with ADHD need guidance and understanding from their parents and teachers to reach their full potential and to succeed in school. Before a child is diagnosed, frustration, blame, and anger may have built up within a family. Parents and children may need special help to overcome bad feelings. Mental health professionals can educate parents about ADHD and how it impacts a family. They also will help the child and his or her parents develop new skills, attitudes, and ways of relating to each other.

Parenting skills training helps parents learn how to use a system of rewards and consequences to change a child's behavior. Parents are taught to give immediate and positive feedback for behaviors they want to encourage, and ignore or redirect behaviors they want to discourage. In some cases, the use of "time-outs" may be used when the child's behavior gets out of control. In a time-out, the child is removed from the upsetting situation and sits alone for a short time to calm down.

Parents are also encouraged to share a pleasant or relaxing activity with the child, to notice and point out what the child does well, and to praise the child's strengths and abilities. They may also learn to structure situations in more positive ways. For example, they may restrict the number of playmates to one or two, so that their child does not become overstimulated. Or, if the child has trouble completing tasks, parents can help their child divide large tasks into smaller, more manageable steps. Also, parents may benefit from learning stress-management techniques to increase their own ability to deal with frustration, so that they can respond calmly to their child's behavior.

Sometimes, the whole family may need therapy. Therapists can help family members find better ways to handle disruptive behaviors and to encourage behavior changes. Finally, support groups help parents and families connect with others who have similar problems and concerns. Groups often meet regularly to share frustrations and successes, to exchange information about recommended specialists and strategies, and to talk with experts.

How is ADHD treated in adults?

Much like children with the disorder, adults with ADHD are treated with medication, psychotherapy, or a combination of treatments.

Medications. ADHD medications, including extended-release forms, often are prescribed for adults with ADHD, but not all of these medications are approved for adults. However, those not approved for adults still may be prescribed by a doctor on an "off-label" basis.

Although not FDA-approved specifically for the treatment of ADHD, antidepressants are sometimes used to treat adults with ADHD. Older antidepressants, called tricyclics, sometimes are used because they, like stimulants, affect the brain chemicals norepinephrine and dopamine. A newer antidepressant, venlafaxine (Effexor), also may be prescribed for its effect on the brain chemical norepinephrine. And in recent clinical trials, the antidepressant bupropion (Wellbutrin), which affects the brain chemical dopamine, showed benefits for adults with ADHD.

Adult prescriptions for stimulants and other medications require special considerations. For example, adults often require other medications for physical problems, such as diabetes or high blood pressure, or for anxiety and depression. Some of these medications may interact badly with stimulants. An adult with ADHD should discuss potential medication options with his or her doctor. These and other issues must be taken into account when a medication is prescribed.

Education and psychotherapy. A professional counselor or therapist can help an adult with ADHD learn how to organize his or her life with tools such as a large calendar or date book, lists, reminder notes, and by assigning a special place for keys, bills, and paperwork. Large tasks can be broken down into more manageable, smaller steps so that completing each part of the task provides a sense of accomplishment.

Psychotherapy, including cognitive behavioral therapy, also can help change one's poor self-image by examining the experiences that produced it. The therapist encourages the adult with ADHD to adjust to the life changes that come with treatment, such as thinking before acting, or resisting the urge to take unnecessary risks.

Living With

Tips to Help Kids Stay Organized and Follow Directions

Schedule. Keep the same routine every day, from wake-up time to bedtime. Include time for homework, outdoor play, and indoor activities. Keep the schedule on the refrigerator or on a bulletin board in the kitchen. Write changes on the schedule as far in advance as possible.

Organize everyday items. Have a place for everything, and keep everything in its place. This includes clothing, backpacks, and toys.

Use homework and notebook organizers. Use organizers for school material and supplies. Stress to your child the importance of writing down assignments and bringing home the necessary books.

Be clear and consistent. Children with ADHD need consistent rules they can understand and follow.

Give praise or rewards when rules are followed. Children with ADHD often receive and expect criticism. Look for good behavior, and praise it.

Some children with ADHD continue to have it as adults. And many adults who have the disorder don't know it. They may feel that it is impossible to get organized, stick to a job, or remember and keep appointments. Daily tasks such as getting up in the morning, preparing to leave the house for work, arriving at work on time, and being productive on the job can be especially challenging for adults with ADHD.

These adults may have a history of failure at school, problems at work, or difficult or failed relationships. Many have had multiple traffic accidents. Like teens, adults with ADHD may seem restless and may try to do several things at once, most of them unsuccessfully. They also tend to prefer "quick fixes," rather than taking the steps needed to achieve greater rewards.

Clinical Trials

NIMH supports research studies on mental health and disorders. See also: A Participant's Guide to Mental Health Clinical Research.

Participate, refer a patient or learn about results of studies inClinicalTrials.gov, the NIH/National Library of Medicine's registry of federally and privately funded clinical trials for all disease.

Find NIH-funded studies currently recruiting participants with ADHD.

MASALAH PEMBELAJARAN AUTISME (AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER)

MASALAH PEMBELAJARAN AUTISME (AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER)

DEFINISI

Autisme didefinasikan sebagai kanak-kanak yang berada dalam dunianya sendiri atau menurut Leo Kanner (1943) sebagai individu yang tidak berkeupayaan menyesuaikan diri mereka secara normal dengan persekitaran. Menurut kajian Persatuan Kebangsaan Autisme Malaysia (NASOM) menjelaskan maksud Autisme seperti berikut:

“Autisme adalah satu kekurangan seumur hidup dan menampakkan kesannya dalam masa 30 bulan yang pertama seseorang bayi. Komunikasi antara mereka adalah terbantut dan mereka tidak dapat berhubung dengan secara langsung. Mereka juga mempunyai masalah tingkah laku. Individu autisme mempunyai kelebihan intelek yang luas. Kerap kali mereka menunjukkan kelebihan dalam bidang matematik atau kemahiran makenikal ataupun dalam seni muzik, ‘rote memory’ dan lain-lain”.



FAKTOR-FAKTOR AUTISME

Dari segi genetik, adik-adik kepada individu autistik lebih berisiko mengalami autisme berbanding orang lain, terutama bagi pasangan kembar seiras. Selain itu, autisme juga sering dikaitkan dengan kecelaruan genetik dan masalah yang berkaitan dengan perubatan seperti Fergile X syndrome, Tuberous Sclerosis dan Phenylketonuria (PKU).

Masalah sebelum dan selepas kelahiran juga boleh menyebabkan autisme. Diantaranya adalah seperti jangkitan rubella semasa dalam kandungan ibu, encephalitis, kekurangan oksigen semasa lahir, keracunan makanan dan bengkak cantik (mumps). Susunan kedudukan adik beradik juga boleh menyumbang kepada masalah autisme, iaitu anak sulung dalam keluarga yang mempunyai dua anak, anak yang keempat atau yang berikutnya bagi keluarga yang mempunyai empat atau lebih (Gargiulo, 2003).

Berkaitan dengan fungsi otak, terdapat bukti yang kukuh bahawa ketidakfungsian cereblum, limbic system dan kemungkinan juga temporal lobe dan cortex terjadi kepada individu autisme.

Kewujudan autisme juga dikaitkan dengan faktor kecelaruan autoimmune dan juga persekitaran. Dalam sesetengah keluarga yang mempunyai anak autisme, ketidakfungsian pelalian (immune dysfunstion) akan berkait dengan beberapa faktor persekitaran yang boleh menyebabkan autisme. Terutamanya alahan kepada makanan seperti susu dan gandum yang tidak dapat dicernakan dengan baik. Terdapat lebih dari 60% kanak-kanak autistik mempunyai sistem pencernaan yang kurang baik. Makanan seperti susu berasaskan haiwan dan tepung gandum tidak dapat dicerna dengan baik dan menyebabkan protien daripada makanan ini tidak bertukar menjadi asid amino ataupun pepton, iaitu bentuk rantaian yang mana akhirnya dibuang memlalui kencing. Bagi kanak-kanak autistik, pepton ini diserap kembali oleh tubuh, memasuki aliran darah, terus ke otak dan diubah menjadi morfin iaitu casomorfin dan gliadrofin yang merosakkan sel-sel otak dan menyebabkan fungsi otak terganggu. Fungsi otak yang terganggu adalah yang melibatkan fungsi kognitif, komunikasi reseptif, tumpuan perhatian dan tingkah laku (Jamila K.A. Mohamed, 2005).



CIRI-CIRI AUTISME

Jamila K.A. Mohamed (2005), telah menggabungkan kesemua ciri kanak-kanak autisme dan dibahagikan kepada enam bidang iaitu:



i. Komunikasi

Kanak-kanak autisme menunjukkan ciri-ciri komunikasi seperti berikut:

• Perkembangan bahasa lambat ataupun tiada langsung.

• Kelihatan seperti bermasalah pendengaran dan tidak

mengendahkan apa yang dikatakan oleh orang lain.

• Jarang menggunakan bahasa.

• Sukar diajak bercakap.

• Kadang kala dapat menuturkan sesuatu tetapi buat seketika sahaja.

• Perkataan atau jawapan yang dituturkan tidak sesuai dengan pertanyaan.

• Mengeluarkan bahasa yang tidak difahami.

• Meniru perbualan ataupun nyanyian tanpa mengerti maksudnya.

• Suka menarik tangan orang lain apabila meminta sesuatu.





ii. Interaksi Sosial

Interaksi sosial kanak-kanak autisme dapat digolongkan sebagai sangat sukar dan ekstrem:

• Suka bersendirian.

• Tiada perhubungan mata (eye contact) dan sentiasa mengelak daripada

memandang orang lain.

• Tidak gemar bermain dengan rakan dan sering menolak ajakan rakan.

• Suka menjauhkan diri dan duduk di suatu sudut.





iii. Gangguan Deria

Diantara ciri-ciri gangguan deria kanak-kanak autisme adalah:

• Sensitif pada sentuhan.

• Tidak suka dipegang ataupun dipeluk.

• Sensitif dengan bunyi yang kuat dan menutup telinga.

• Suka mencium dan menjilat mainan atau benda lain.



iv. Pola Bermain

Pola bermain kanak-kanak autisme ditunjukkan seperti berikut:

• Tidak suka bermain seperti rakan-rakan sebayanya.

• Tidak bermain mengikut cara biasa, dan suka memutar-mutar ataupun

melambung-lambung dan menyambut mainan atau apa saja yang

dipegangnya.

• Suka dengan objek-objek yang berputar seperti kipas angin.

• Apabila menyukai sesuatu benda, terus dipegang dan dibawa ke mana sahaja.



v. Tingkah Laku

Tingkah laku kanak-kanak autisme adalah seperti berikut:

• Sama ada hiperaktif ataupun hippoaktif.

• Melakukan perbuatan ataupun gerakan yang sama dan berulang-ulang

seperti bergoyang-goyang, mengepak-ngepak tangan dan menepuk-

nepuk tangan, berlari atau berjalan mundar mandir.

• Tidak suka pada perubahan (daripada apa yang sedang dilakukannya).

• Dapat duduk dengan lama tanpa berbuat apa-apa dan tanpa sebarang

reaksi.





vi. Emosi

Emosi kanak-kanak autisme sangat sukar diramal dan berubah-rubah. Diantaranya ialah:

• Sering marah, ketawa dan menangis tanpa sebab, mengamuk tanpa

terkawal jika tidak dituruti kemahuannya atau dilarang daripada

melakukan sesuatu yang diingininya.

• Merosakkan apa saja yang ada disekitarnya jika emosinya terganggu.

• Menyerang sesiapa sahaja berhampirannya jika emosinya terganggu.

• Adakalanya mencederakan dirinya sendiri.

• Tiada rasa simpati dan tidak memahami perasaan orang lain.





PERKHIDMATAN INTERVENSI UNTUK KANAK-KANAK AUTISME



Proses intervensi bagi kanak-kanak autistik bermula sebaik saja masalah ini dikesan. Tumpuan intervensi pada peringkat pemulaan tertumpu kepada rawatan perubatan dan pengurusan tingkah laku. Rawatan perubatan yang luas digunakan untuk kanak-kanak autistik adalah penggunaan ubatan Ritalin untuk merawat masalah kurang tumpuan dan hiperaktif. Selain itu, pengambilan vitamin B6 bersama magnesium juga dapat membantu meningkatkan kesedaran dan tumpuan perhatian kanak-kanak autistik.

Pengurusan tingkah laku merangkumi pelbagai strategi dan teknik yang digunakan untuk menambah atau mengekalkan tingkah laku sasaran (positif) dan mengurang atau menghapus tingkah laku sesuai. Diantara teknik yang digunakan adalah seperti pengasingan, kejelakan, time-out, shaping, memberi ganjaran dan sebagainya. Perkhidmatan interventif awal sangat penting bagi kanak-kanak autistik untuk membantu mengurangkan masalah autistik yang mereka alami. Selain rawatan perubatan dan pengurusan tingkah laku, perkhidmatan intervensi awal termasuklah pendidikan terancang.

Kanak–kanak autisme boleh dididik melalui program pendidikan yang bersepadu dan terancang. Keunikan corak pembelajaran mereka adalah disebabkan kepelbagaian atau kerencaman masalah lain yang berkait dengan masalah autisme itu sendiri seperti masalah tingkah laku, emosi, komunikasi, sosial, dan kognitif. Kanak-kanak ini diajar oleh guru-guru yang terlatih dalam bidang Pendidikan Khas. Bagi mencapai objektif pembelajaran kanak-kanak autisme ini, semua pihak yang terlibat terutamanya guru-guru hendaklah mempunyai kerjasama yang erat dengan ibubapa murid. Matlamat utama adalah supaya kemahiran dan pendekatan yang diajar di sekolah diteruskan dan diaplikasikan oleh ibubapa di rumah terutamanya dalam aspek pengurusan tingkah laku. Dalam kebanyakkan kes, kanak-kanak yang sudah biasa dengan tingkah laku tertentu yang kurang sesuai mendapati sukar untuk mengubah atau menghentikan tingkah laku tersebut apabila berada di sekolah. Usaha guru untuk mengubah tingkah laku itu tidak akan berjaya sekiranya tidak ada kesinambungan usaha tersebut di rumah oleh ibubapa.

Kanak-kanak autisme yang menunjukkan prestasi yang baik di dalam kelasnya diberi peluang untuk meningkatkan lagi keupayaannya melalui program Pendidikan Inklusif. Pelajar ini akan ditempatkan di Kelas Aliran Perdana untuk belajar bersama-sama dengan rakan sebaya lain yang normal. Pada peringkat awal, kanak-kanak ini akan ditemani oleh guru pembimbing. Guru pembimbing akan membantu dan memantau kanak-kanak ini belajar. Kurikulum untuk kanak-kanak autisme adalah sama seperti kanak-kanak berkepeluan khas yang lain juga.

Apabila kanak-kanak ini ditempatkan di dalam kelas Program Pendidikan Khas Integrasi (Bermasalah Pembelajaran), mereka akan belajar mengikut Kurikulum Pendidikan Khas yang disediakan oleh Jabatan Pendidikan Khas. Guru akan menyampaikan pelajarannya mengikut tahap keupayaan murid dan tidak begitu terikat dengan sukatan pelajaran.

KANAK-KANAK AUTISME: CIRI-CIRI DAN IMPLIKASI DALAM PROSES PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN

KANAK-KANAK AUTISME: CIRI-CIRI DAN IMPLIKASI DALAM PROSES PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN

Oleh:

Khairul Anwar Bin Sharin

INSTITUT PENDIDIKAN GURU MALAYSIA

KAMPUS PENDIDIKAN TEKNIK KUALA LUMPUR

1.0 PENDAHULUAN

Autisme bermula sejak awal 20 masihi lagi. Perkataan autisme berasal daripada perkataan bahasa Greek iaitu “autos” yang bermaksud sendiri. Dalam situasi ini, autos merujuk kepada seseorang yang hidup dalam dunianya sendiri. Seorang ahli psikologi dari Harvard iaitu Leo Kanner telah memperkenalkan istilah austis pada tahun 1943 berdasarkan pemerhatian beliau terhadap penghidap autisme yang menunjukkan respon yang negatif dalam berkomunikasi dengan orang lain, pengasingngan diri, keadaan yang tidak fleksibel dengan orang lain dan cara komunikasi yang berbeza daripada orang biasa. Hasil kajian, (Michael Waldman, Sean Nicholson,& Nodir Adilov, 2006), di dalam jurnalnya yang bertajuk “Does Television Cause Autism?” menyatakan bahawa 1 daripada 166 kanak-kanak di dunia merupakan penghidap autisme.

Menurut kamus Oxford Advance Learner autism ialah a mental condition in which a person is unable to communicate or form relationships with other. Kamus Electronik Encarta terbitan Microsoft Coporation pula menyatakan bahawa autisme ialah a disturbance in phycological development in which use of language, reaction to stimuli, interpretation of the world, and the formation of relationships are not fully established and follow unusual pattern. Maka, dapat disimpulkan di sini, autisme merupakan ganguan psikologi terhadap perkembangan komunikasi, gerakan tubuh badan, sikap, emosi, sosial, dan sentuhan.

Menurut Dr. Widowo Judarwanto di dalam jurnalnya yang bertajuk “Pencegahan Autis Pada Anak”, kebiasaanya autistik tidak langsung mempedulikan suara, penglihatannya ataupun perkara-perkara yang berlaku dipersekitaran mereka. Sekiranya mereka memberi reaksi terhadap sesuatu perkara, kebiasaanya, reaksi mereka langsung tidak menyentuh mengenai perkara tersebut, malah adakalanya mereka tidak langsung memberi apa-apa reaksi.

2.0 CIRI-CIRI KANAK-KANAK AUTISME

2.1 Komunikasi dan Bahasa

Menurut Dr. Widowo, penghidap autisme biasanya mengalami masalah gangguan dalam komunikasi. Mereka lambat untuk bercakap dan ada sesetengahnya gagal secara total untuk bercakap. Sekiranya mereka dapat bercakap, mereka hanya bercakap untuk masa yang singkat, tidak dalam waktu yang lama. Menariknya, mereka hanya mampu untuk menggunakan bahasa tubuh untuk berkomunikasi dengan orang lain. Mereka mampu untuk meniru apa yang orang lain katakan, tetapi mereka gagal untuk memahami maksud kata-kata tersebut.

2.2 Kognitif

Autisme merupakan masalah dalam mental penghidapnya. Maka, ia turut memberi kesan dalam perkembangan kognitif mereka. Menurut (Michael Waldman, Sean Nicholson,& Nodir Adilov, 2006) dalam jurnalnya menyatakan bahawa kanak-kanak autisme ini mengalami masalah separa buta akal. Mereka kurang memahami konsep pemahaman yang difikirkan oleh orang lain.

2.3 Interaksi Sosial

Dr. Widowo menyatakan bahawa penghidap autisme biasanya mengelakkan diri untuk bertentang muka dengan orang lain. Mereka tidak menyahut apabila mereka dipanggil tetapi hanya menolehkan muka kepada orang yang memanggil mereka. Kebiasaannya penghidap autisme akan merasa tidak selesa jika mereka ini dipeluk, tetapi mereka tidak menolak pelukan tersebut. Sekiranya mereka menginginkan sesuatu mereka akan memegang tangan orang yang berhampiran dengan mereka dan mengharapkan orang tersebut melakukan sesuatu untuk memenuhi keinginannya. Mereka tidak akan berasa selesa sekiranya waktu mereka bermain ada orang lain cuba untuk mendekati mereka dan mereka akan mengambil tindakan untuk menjauhkan diri daripada orang tersebut.

2.4 Ganguan Emosi

Menurut Dr. Widowo lagi, kebanyakan penghidap autisme, mengalami masalah emosi yang tidak seimbang. Kadangkala mereka akan ketawa, menangis atau marah seorang diri tanpa sebab yang munasabah. Mereka ini mempunyai sikap panas baran yang sukar dikawal terutama apabila mereka gagal untuk mendapatkan apa yang mereka inginkan. Ini boleh menyebabkan mereka menjadi manusia yang agresif.

2.5 Perangai dan Sikap

Dr. Widowo menafsirkan bahawa kanak-kanak autisme ini senang untuk diuruskan apabila meletakkan sesuatu barang pada tempat-tempat yang tertentu. Kadangkala, kanak-kanak ini akan berubah sikap menjadi kanak-kanak yang hiperaktif terutamanya apabila mereka berhadapan dengan suasana yang asing buat mereka. Mereka akan meniru perbuatan yang dilihatnya seperti burung yang sedang terbang. Mereka akan melambai-lambaikan tangan seolah-olah mereka juga ingin terbang. Ibu bapa dan guru perlu memberikan perhatian yang lebih kepada kanak-kanak autisme kerana mereka mampu untuk mencederakan diri mereka seperti menghantukkan kepala mereka ke dinding. Kadangkala juga, mereka akan bersikap pasif dengan berdiam diri sambil merenung dengan renungan yang kosong. Perubahan sikap yang ditunjukkan seperti marah dengan tiba-tiba dan memberi perhatian yang bersungguh-sungguh terhadap sesuatu perkara.

2.6 Kesan Sentuhan Fizikal

Hasil kajian Dr. Widowo menunjukkan bahawa kebanyakkan penghidap autisme sangat sensitif terhadap cahaya, bunyi, sentuhan, rasa dan ciuman. Kebiasaannya penghidap autisme mengalami tabiat suka menjilat, menggigit, atau mencium apa sahaja barang termasuklah barang mainan mereka. Mereka akan menutup telinga apabila mereka terdengar bunyi kuat. Apabila kanak-kanak autisme ingin dimandikan mereka akan menangis apabila rambut mereka dibasahkan. Mereka juga tidak selesa jika mereka dipakaikan dengan pakaian-pakaian yang tertentu menyebabkan ibu bapa sukar untuk menguruskan pakaian mereka. Mereka amat tidak selesa dengan pelukan atau rabaan. Mereka akan cuba mengelak atau melepaskan diri daripada perbuatan tersebut.

3.0 IMPLIKASI KANAK-KANAK AUTISME DALAM PROSES PENGAJARAN DAN PEMBELAJARAN

Guru memainkan peranan penting dalam menguruskan kanak-kanak autisme di sekolah. Ini kerana kanak-kanak autisme ini sukar dikenal pasti secara melalui fizikal semata-mata. Mereka mengalami masalah komunikasi yang kronik sehingga mereka tidak mampu untuk mengenal pasti riak air muka, bahasa tubuh, isyarat atau perlambangan, dan nada suara yang berbeza bagi menafsirkan perasaan.

Menurut Vacca (2007) dalam jurnalnya yang bertajuk Autistic Children Can Be Taught To Read menyatakan bahawa pemikiran imaginasi kanak-kanak autistik sentiasa berkurangan, maka penulisan dan pembacaan yang kreatif terlalu sukar untuk difahami oleh mereka. Maka, guru perlu mengajar dalam bentuk yang lebih fakta dan konkrit. Sebagai contohnya, guru menanyakan soalan fakta seperti “Apa yang berlaku disini?, apa yang akan berlaku seterusnya?” dan sebagainya. Vacca (2007) percaya bahawa adalah lebih baik sekiranya guru menggunakan bahan yang realiti berbanding bahan yang berbentuk fantasi.

Menurut Vacca (2007) lagi, beliau menyatakan bahawa guru perlu menjadikan aktiviti membaca untuk autistic suatu aktiviti yang menyeronokkan dengan menggunakan Authetic High Interest Visual Material. Berdasarkan journal beliau, Grandin (2002) menyatakan bahawa kanak-kanak autisti memiliki pemikiran visual. Mereka tidak memikirkan bahasa tetapi dalam bentuk gambar rajah.

Menurut Vacca (2007) , beliau menyatakan lagi dalam kajian beliau bahawa dalam memulakan pengajaran untuk kanak-kanak autistik, guru perlu mengikut minatnya terlebih dahulu. Sebagai contohnya, guru meminta kanak-kanak autistic melukis kartun lawak dan kemudian menulis penerangan mengenai kartun tersebut dibawah gambar tersebut.

Apabila mereka selesai dalam melakukan sesuatu tugasan, berikanlah kata-kata pujian walaupun adakalanya mereka tidak memahami pujian tersebut. Ganjaran juga boleh diberikan seperti melebihkan masa bermain mereka kerana mereka telah berjaya melakukan sesuatu tugasan.

Semasa mengajar, guru digalakkan untuk menggunakan kata-kata, foto-foto, gambar rajah, lambang atau isyarat bagi membantu mereka untuk meluahkan perasaan mereka. Keprihatinan guru dalam mengenal pasti perasaan mereka adalah perlu agar emosi dan perasaan mereka tidak mempengaruhi tingkah laku mereka cenderung ke arah negatif seperti mencederakan diri atau orang lain.

4.0 PENUTUP

Penyakit kecacatan pada mental yang memberi kesan sepanjang hidup ini terlalu sukar untuk dipulihkan. Maka, adalah menjadi tanggungjawab kepada semua pihak terutamanya guru-guru dalam mengenal pasti setiap ciri-ciri kanak-kanak autisme ini supaya dapat berhadapan dengan mereka dengan bijak dan menggunakan segala kemahiran yang ada dalam membentuk mereka menjadikan seperti kanak-kanak yang lain. Kesabaran dan ketabahan diperlukan dalam menguruskan kanak-kanak autisme ini kerana tanpa kesabaran dan ketabahan yang tinggi menyebabkan kanak-kanak ini akan terus cacat seumur hidup mereka.

Menurut Vacca (2007) lagi, beliau menyatakan bahawa guru perlu menjadikan aktiviti membaca untuk autistic suatu aktiviti yang menyeronokkan dengan menggunakan Authetic High Interest Visual Material. Berdasarkan journal beliau, Grandin (2002) menyatakan bahawa kanak-kanak autisti memiliki pemikiran visual. Mereka tidak memikirkan bahasa tetapi dalam bentuk gambar rajah.

Menurut Vacca (2007) , beliau menyatakan lagi dalam kajian beliau bahawa dalam memulakan pengajaran untuk kanak-kanak autistik, guru perlu mengikut minatnya terlebih dahulu. Sebagai contohnya, guru meminta kanak-kanak autistic melukis kartun lawak dan kemudian menulis penerangan mengenai kartun tersebut dibawah gambar tersebut.

Apabila mereka selesai dalam melakukan sesuatu tugasan, berikanlah kata-kata pujian walaupun adakalanya mereka tidak memahami pujian tersebut. Ganjaran juga boleh diberikan seperti melebihkan masa bermain mereka kerana mereka telah berjaya melakukan sesuatu tugasan.

Semasa mengajar, guru digalakkan untuk menggunakan kata-kata, foto-foto, gambar rajah, lambang atau isyarat bagi membantu mereka untuk meluahkan perasaan mereka. Keprihatinan guru dalam mengenal pasti perasaan mereka adalah perlu agar emosi dan perasaan mereka tidak mempengaruhi tingkah laku mereka cenderung ke arah negatif seperti mencederakan diri atau orang lain.

Sindrom Lambat Membaca (DISLEKSIA)

Sindrom Lambat Membaca (DISLEKSIA)

Mengajar anak membaca di awal usia dapat membantu ibubapa mengenalpasti/mengesan masalah anak lebih awal dan sekaligus dapat mencari penyelesaian dengan cepat.

Kesihatan Anak: Sindrom lambat membaca

Oleh Nurul Nadia Mohd Kamaruzaman

Disleksia disebabkan oleh kerosakan pada kebolehan otak untuk menterjemahkan imej tulisan kepada kefahaman

JENIS-JENIS DISLEKSIA

Disleksia boleh dikategorikan kepada tiga bahagian iaitu :

1. Disleksia visual (penglihatan)

o Kesukaran utama yang dihadapi ialah untuk mengigat dan mengenal abjad serta konfugirasi perkataan. Simbol-simbol perkataan yang dicetak juga sukar untuk diterjemahkan. Kemungkinan untuk melihat abjad-abjad tertentu atau sebahagian perkataan adalah secara terbalik.

2. Disleksia auditori (pendengaran) 

o Kesukaran untuk mengingat bunyi abjad, menganalisis bunyi mengikut suku kata perkataan dan menyusun atau menggabungkan suku kata bagi menyembunyikan perkataan. Bunyi percakapan yang tuturkan secara halus juga tidak dapat dibezakan. Masalah untuk membezakan bunyi vokal dengan konsonan juga dihadapi oleh dislaksia auditori.

3. Disleksia visual-auditori 

o Kesukaran mambaca yang amat teruk dan ini disebabkan oleh kelemahan untuk memproses tulisan secara visual dan audio

BIASANYA kanak-kanak yang berumur tujuh tahun ke atas sudah tahu mengenal huruf, mengeja, membaca dan menulis. Bagaimana pula bagi mereka yang masih tidak mampu melakukan semua itu?

Sesetengah ibu bapa mungkin menganggap anak mereka yang mengalami masalah berkenaan lembap dan malas tanpa berusaha mengenal pasti punca masalah itu berlaku.

Kanak-kanak yang berumur lima tahun ke atas yang masih tidak mampu mengeja dan menulis mungkin disebabkan oleh sejenis sindrom yang dipanggil disleksia. Sindrom lambat membaca ini bukan satu penyakit berbahaya, tetapi kesannya boleh menyebabkan kanak-kanak ketinggalan dalam pembelajaran.

Disleksia disebabkan oleh kerosakan pada kebolehan otak untuk menterjemahkan imej tulisan kepada kefahaman. Ia juga dipanggil sebagai sindrom "lambat baca" di kalangan kanak-kanak.

Kanak-kanak disleksia adalah normal dari segi fizikal, pemikiran dan cara percakapan tetapi yang membezakan mereka daripada kanak-kanak lain ialah kesukaran membentuk satu kefahaman bagi sesuatu huruf serta menyebutnya.

Rawatan bagi sindrom ini adalah dengan menyertai pelbagai jenis program pembelajaran bagi membentuk minat mereka untuk membaca dan menulis. Sokongan padu amat penting bagi kanak-kanak terbabit.

Presiden Persatuan Kanak-Kanak Disleksia Wilayah Persekutuan, Sariah Amirin, berkata sindrom disleksia agak sukar dikenal pasti kerana ia tidak seperti sindrom atau penyakit lain.

"Jika kanak-kanak mula menunjukkan kelewatan bercakap dengan fasih, lambat mengenal pasti huruf serta menyanyi, mereka mungkin berisiko mengalami disleksia.

"Apabila mereka mula memasuki alam persekolahan keadaan itu akan kelihatan lebih ketara termasuk ketidakupayaan mengenal huruf, membaca, memahami, cepat lupa serta menterbalikkan huruf.

"Kanak-kanak ini juga membaca dari kanan ke kiri, tidak dapat membezakan persamaan perkataan dan kesukaran untuk menyebut ayat yang dieja," katanya.

Disleksia juga boleh diklasifikasikan sebagai kelewatan pembelajaran dari segi umur daripada yang sepatutnya. Kebanyakan kanak-kanak yang berumur enam tahun sudah mampu untuk belajar membaca, tetapi bagi kanak-kanak disleksia, mereka tidak dapat memahami asas pembacaan walaupun sudah mencapai Tahun Satu.

"Tiada ujian tunggal yang dilakukan untuk mengenal pasti disleksia. Penilaian diagnosis yang dilakukan adalah berkaitan dengan perubatan, proses mengenal (kognitif), pengolahan pancaindera dan sejarah perubatan keluarga.

"Rawatan dari segi psikologi juga patut diberikan kepada kanak-kanak ini. Ini boleh menentukan bahawa mereka mengalami masalah sosiol atau tidak. Sifat bimbang atau tekanan yang dihadapi akibat kesukaran penerimaan pembelajaran boleh merencatkan kebolehan mereka," katanya.

Komplikasi yang dihidapi oleh kanak-kanak disleksia ini mampu menjejaskan mata pelajaran lain seperti matematik. Selain itu disebabkan membaca adalah perkara asas dalam keseluruhan pembelajaran, kanak-kanak ini akan menghadapi masalah untuk meneruskannya ke peringkat paling tinggi.

Sariah berkata, rawatan pemulihan bagi kanak-kanak ini adalah melalui program pengajaran yang bersesuaian.

Katanya, pengajar perlu menggunakan teknik mendengar, melihat dan sentuhan untuk membantu meningkatkan kemahiran pembacaan mereka.

"Anda boleh membantu dengan cara membacakan buku kepada mereka bagi membantu mereka menyebut sesuatu huruf itu dengan baik.

"Bagi mereka yang tidak boleh membaca, sesi pengajaran mesti dilakukan dalam jumlah kumpulan yang kecil setiap minggu. Selain itu, sokongan keluarga adalah peluang paling besar bagi menyembuhkan disleksia katanya.

Beliau berkata, ibu bapa perlu banyak meluangkan masa bercakap dengan mereka dan memberi semangat kepada mereka yang mengalami sindrom disleksia.

Jangan sekali-kali bandingkan mereka dengan kanak-kanak normal lain. Ini mampu menjatuhkan maruah serta semangat mereka," katanya.

FAKTA: Disleksia

Disleksia adalah sejenis sindrom lambat membaca

Kanak-kanak berusia lima tahun boleh dikenal pasti sama ada menghidap disleksia atau tidak.

Kanak-kanak ini adalah normal seperti kanak-kanak lain, malah mereka juga dikatakan lebih bijak dalam berfikir.

Masalah utama penghidap disleksia ialah ketinggalan dalam pelajaran.

Cara pembelajaran yang sesuai dan menarik mampu merawat permasalahan disleksia ini.